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Earth, one of the planets
in the solar system, the third in distance from the Sun and the fifth largest of
the planets in diameter. The mean distance of the Earth from the Sun is
149,503,000 km (92,897,000 mi). It is the only planet known to support life,
although some of the other planets have atmospheres and contain water.
The Earth is not a perfect sphere but is slightly
pear-shaped. Calculations based on perturbations in the orbits of artificial
satellites reveal that the Earth is an imperfect sphere, because the equator
bulges, or is distended, 21 km (13 mi); the North Pole bulges 10 m (33 ft); and
the South Pole is depressed about 31 m (about 100 ft).
Motion
In common with the entire solar system, the Earth is moving
through space at the rate of approximately 20.1 km/sec or 72,360 km/hr
(approximately 12.5 mi/sec or 45,000 mph) toward the constellation of Hercules.
The Milky Way galaxy as a whole, however, is moving toward the constellation Leo
at about 600 km/sec (about 375 mi/sec). The Earth and its satellite, the moon,
also move together in an elliptical orbit about the Sun. The eccentricity of the
orbit is slight, so that the orbit is virtually a circle. The approximate length
of the Earth's orbit is 938,900,000 km (583,400,000 mi), and the Earth travels
along it at a velocity of about 106,000 km/hr (about 66,000 mph). The Earth
rotates on its axis once every 23 hr 56 min 4.1 sec (based on the solar year). A
point on the equator therefore rotates at a rate of a little more than 1600
km/hr (about 1000 mph), and a point on the Earth at the latitude of Portland,
Oregon (45° north), rotates at about 1073 km/hr (about 667 mph).
In addition to these primary motions, three other components
of the total motion of the Earth exist: the precession of the equinoxes (see
Ecliptic), nutation (periodic variation in the inclination of the Earth's axis
caused by the gravitational pulls of the Sun and moon), and variation of
latitude (see Latitude and Longitude).
Composition
The Earth consists of five parts: the first, the atmosphere,
is gaseous; the second, the hydrosphere, is liquid; the third, fourth, and
fifth, the lithosphere, mantle, and core, are largely solid. The atmosphere is
the gaseous envelope that surrounds the solid body of the planet. Although it
has a thickness of more than 1100 km (more than 700 mi), about half its mass is
concentrated in the lower 5.6 km (3.5 mi). The lithosphere, consisting mainly of
the cold, rigid, rocky crust of the Earth, extends to depths of 100 km (60 mi).
The hydrosphere is the layer of water that, in the form of the oceans, covers
approximately 70.8% of the surface of the Earth. The mantle and core are the
heavy interior of the Earth, making up most of the Earth's mass.
The hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but
technically includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas,
lakes, rivers, and underground waters. The average depth of the oceans is 3794 m
(12,447 ft), more than five times the average height of the continents. The mass
of the oceans is approximately 1.35 quintillion (1.35 Χ 1018) metric tons, or
about 1/4400 of the total mass of the Earth.
The rocks of the lithosphere have an average density of 2.7
and are almost entirely made up of 11 elements, which together account for about
99.5 percent of its mass. The most abundant is oxygen (about 46.60 percent of
the total), followed by silicon (about 27.72 percent), aluminum (8.13 percent),
iron (5.0 percent), calcium (3.63 percent), sodium (2.83 percent), potassium
(2.59 percent), magnesium (2.09 percent) and titanium, hydrogen, and phosphorus
(totaling less than 1 percent). In addition, 11 other elements are present in
trace amounts of 0.1 to 0.02 percent. These elements, in order of abundance, are
carbon, manganese, sulfur, barium, chlorine, chromium, fluorine, zirconium,
nickel, strontium, and vanadium. The elements are present in the lithosphere
almost entirely in the form of compounds rather than in their free state. These
compounds exist almost entirely in the crystalline state, so they are, by
definition, minerals.
The lithosphere comprises two shells-the crust and upper
mantle-that are divided into a dozen or so rigid tectonic plates (see Plate
Tectonics). The crust itself is divided in two. The sialic or upper crust, of
which the continents consist, is made up of igneous and sedimentary rocks whose
average chemical composition is similar to that of granite and whose density is
about 2.7. The simatic or lower crust, which forms the floors of the ocean
basins, is made of darker, heavier igneous rocks such as gabbro and basalt, with
an average density of about 3.
The lithosphere also includes the upper mantle. Rocks at
these depths have a density of about 3.3. The upper mantle is separated from the
crust above by a seismic discontinuity, called the Moho, and from the lower
mantle below by a zone of weakness known as the asthenosphere. Shearing of the
plastic, partially molten rocks of the asthenosphere, 100 km (60 mi) thick,
enables the continents to drift across the Earth's surface and oceans to open
and close.
The dense, heavy interior of the Earth is divided into a
thick shell, the mantle, surrounding an innermost sphere, the core. The mantle
extends from the base of the crust to a depth of about 2900 km (1800 mi). Except
for the zone known as the asthenosphere, it is solid, and its density,
increasing with depth, ranges from 3.3 to 6. The upper mantle is composed of
iron and magnesium silicates, as typified by the mineral olivine. The lower part
may consist of a mixture of oxides of magnesium, silicon, and iron.
Seismological research has shown that the core has an outer
shell about 2225 km (1380 mi) thick with an average density of 10. This shell is
probably rigid, and studies show that its outer surface has depressions and
peaks, the latter forming where warm material rises. In contrast, the inner
core, which has a radius of about 1275 km (795 mi), is solid. Both core layers
are thought to consist largely of iron, with a small percentage of nickel and
other elements. Temperatures in the inner core may be as high as 6650°C
(12,000°F), and the average density is estimated to be 13.
Internal Heat Flow
Intense heat from the inner core is continually radiated
outward, through the several concentric shells that form the solid portion of
the planet. The source of this heat is thought to be energy released by the
radioactive decay of uranium and other radioactive elements. Convection currents
within the mantle transfer most of this heat energy from deep within the Earth
to the surface and are the driving force behind continental drift. Convective
flow supplies hot, molten rock to the worldwide system of midocean ridges (see
Ocean and Oceanography) and feeds the lava that erupts from volcanoes on land.
Age and Origin of the Earth
Radiometric dating has enabled scientists to arrive at an
estimate of 4.65 billion years for the age of the Earth (see Dating Methods).
Although the oldest Earth rocks dated this way are not quite 4 billion years
old, meteorites, which correlate geologically with the Earth's core, give dates
of about 4.5 billion years, and crystallization of the core and meteorites is
considered to have occurred at the same time, some 150 million years after the
Earth and solar system first formed (see Solar System: Theories of Origin).
After originally condensing, by gravitational attraction of
cosmic dust and gas, the Earth would have been almost homogeneous and relatively
cool. But continued contraction of these materials caused them to heat, as did
the radioactivity of some of the heavier elements. In the next stage of its
formation, as the Earth became hotter, it began melting under the influence of
gravity. This caused the differentiation into crust, mantle, and core, with the
lighter silicates moving up and outward to form the mantle and crust and the
heavier elements, mainly iron and nickel, sinking downward toward the center of
the Earth to form the core. Meanwhile, by volcanic eruption, light, volatile
gases and vapors continually escaped from the mantle and crust. Some of these,
mainly carbon dioxide and nitrogen, were held by the Earth's gravity and formed
the primitive atmosphere, while water vapor condensed to form the world's first
oceans.
Terrestrial Magnetism
The phenomenon of terrestrial magnetism results from the fact
that the entire Earth behaves as an enormous magnet. The English physician and
natural philosopher William Gilbert was the first to demonstrate this similarity
in about 1600, although the effects of terrestrial magnetism had been utilized
much earlier in primitive compasses.
Magnetic Poles
The magnetic poles of the Earth do not correspond with the
geographic poles of its axis. The north magnetic pole is presently located off
the western coast of Bathurst Island, in the Canadian Northwest Territories,
almost 1290 km (almost 800 mi) northwest of Hudson Bay. The south magnetic pole
is presently situated at the edge of the Antarctic continent in Adιlie Land
about 1930 km (about 1200 mi) northeast of Little America.
The position of the magnetic poles is not constant and shows
an appreciable change from year to year. Variations in the magnetic field of the
Earth include secular variation, the change in the direction of the field caused
by the shifting of the poles. This is a periodic variation that repeats itself
after 960 years. A smaller annual variation also exists, as does a diurnal, or
daily, variation that can be detected only by sensitive instruments.
Dynamo Theory
Measurements of the secular variation show that the entire
magnetic field has a tendency to drift westward at the rate of 19 to 24 km (12
to 15 mi) per year. Clearly the magnetism of the Earth is the result of a
dynamic rather than a passive condition, which would be the case if the iron
core of the Earth were solid and passively magnetized. Iron does not retain a
permanent magnetism at temperatures above 540° C (1000° F), however, and the
temperature at the center of the Earth may be as high as 6650° C (12,000° F).
The dynamo theory suggests that the iron core is liquid (except at the very
center of the Earth where the pressure solidifies the core), and that convection
currents within the liquid core behave like the individual wires in a dynamo,
thus setting up a gigantic magnetic field. The solid inner core rotates more
slowly than the outer core, thus accounting for the secular westward drift. The
irregular surface of the outer core may help to account for some of the more
irregular changes in the field.
Inner Core Structure
Another theory that may explain some variations in the
Earth's magnetic field concerns the structure of the very inner core of the
Earth. In 1995 scientists at the Carnegie Institute of Washington announced that
computer models of the Earth's inner core appear to show one huge, remarkably
aligned iron crystal. Scientists think that the atoms in the core are arranged
so that each atom is packed with 12 neighboring atoms in a tightly packed
hexagonal structure (see Crystal (mineral)). The molten outer core still
provides the Earth's magnetic field in this theory, but the inner core would
have some effect, probably causing the magnetic field to warp slightly and
causing especially large variations in the position of the magnetic poles during
times when the outer core's effect is weaker, such as during a magnetic
reversal. A crystalline inner core would also explain why shock waves caused by
Earthquakes take about four seconds longer to go from east to west through the
Earth than from north to south, because the waves would travel more quickly with
the "grain" than across the grain of the crystal.
Field Intensity
The study of the intensity of the Earth's magnetic field is
valuable from the points of view of pure science and of engineering, and also
for geological prospecting for mineral and energy resources. Intensity
measurements are made with instruments called magnetometers, which determine the
total intensity of the field and the intensities in the horizontal and vertical
directions. The intensity of the magnetic field of the Earth varies in different
places on its surface. In the temperate zones it amounts to about 0.6 oersted
(the oersted is a unit of measurement of a magnetic field; see Electrical
Units), of which 0.2 oersted is in a horizontal direction.
Paleomagnetism
Studies of ancient volcanic rocks show that as they cooled,
they "froze" with their minerals oriented in the magnetic field existing at that
time. Worldwide measurements of such mineral deposits show that through
geological time the orientation of the magnetic field has shifted with respect
to the continents. The north magnetic pole 500 million years ago, for example,
lay south of Hawaii, and for the next 300 million years the magnetic equator lay
across the United States. To account for this, geologists believe that the outer
crust of the Earth has gradually shifted around, even though the axis on which
the Earth spins has remained the same. If this were the case, the climatic belts
would have remained the same, but the continents would have drifted slowly
through different "paleolatitudes."
Magnetic Reversals
Recent studies of remanent (residual) magnetism in rocks and
of magnetic anomalies on the floors of the oceans have shown that the magnetic
field of the Earth has reversed its polarity at least 170 times in the past 100
million years. Knowledge of these reversals, which can be dated from radioactive
isotopes in the rocks, has had a great influence on theories of continental
drift and the spreading of ocean floors.
Terrestrial Electricity
Three electrical systems generated in the Earth and in the
atmosphere by natural geophysical processes are known. One of them is in the
atmosphere, and one is within the Earth, flowing parallel to the surface of the
Earth. The third, which transfers an electric charge continuously between the
atmosphere and the Earth, flows vertically. See Encarta, Electricity for more
on this topic.
Atmospheric electricity, except for that associated with
charges within a cloud and lightning, results from the ionization of the
atmosphere by solar radiation and from the movement of clouds of ions carried by
atmospheric tides (see Ion; Ionization). Atmospheric tides result from the
gravitational attraction of the Sun and the moon on the Earth's atmosphere (see
Gravitation; Tide), and, like the oceanic tides, they rise and fall daily. The
ionization, and consequently the electrical conductivity, of the atmosphere
close to the surface of the Earth is low, but it increases rapidly with
increasing altitude. Between 40 and 400 km (25 to 250 mi) above the Earth, the
ionosphere forms an almost perfectly conducting spherical shell. The shell
reflects radio signals back to Earth and absorbs electromagnetic radiations
approaching the Earth from space. The ionization of the atmosphere varies
greatly, not only with altitude but with the time of day and the latitude.
Earth Currents
Earth currents constitute a worldwide system of eight loops
of electric current rather evenly distributed on both sides of the equator, plus
a series of smaller loops near the poles. Although it has been contended that
this system is induced entirely by the daily changes in atmospheric electricity
(and this may be true for short-term variations), it is likely that the origins
of the system are more complex. The core of the Earth, which consists of molten
iron and nickel, is capable of conducting electricity and can be likened to the
armature of a huge electric generator. Thermal convection currents in the core
are believed to move the molten metal in loop patterns relative to the magnetic
field of the Earth, producing the system of Earth currents that mirror the
pattern of convection currents within the core.
The Surface Charge of the Earth
The surface of the Earth has a negative charge of
electricity. Although the conductivity of air near the Earth is small, air is
not a perfect insulator, and the negative charge would drain off quickly if it
were not being continuously replenished in some way.
In all places in which measurements have been made in fair
weather, a flow of positive electricity has been observed to move downward from
the atmosphere to the Earth. The negative charge of the Earth is the cause,
attracting positive ions from the atmosphere to the Earth. Although it has been
suggested that this downward current may be balanced by upward positive currents
in the polar regions, the preferred hypothesis today is that the negative charge
is transferred to the Earth during storms and that the downward flow of positive
current during fair weather is balanced by a return flow of positive current
from areas of the Earth experiencing stormy weather. It has been proved that a
negative charge is transferred to Earth from thunderclouds, and the rate at
which storms develop electric energy is sufficient to replenish the surface
charge. In addition, the frequency of storms appears to be greatest during the
time of day when the negative charge of the Earth increases most rapidly.
Contributed by:
Earl Cook
Microsoft(R) Encarta(R) 97
Encyclopedia.
(c) 1993-1996 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
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